of the cell wall, the protoplast becomes very sensitive to osmosis osmotic stress. This means cell wall digestion and protoplast storage must be done in an Tonicity Isotonicity isotonic solution to prevent rupture of the plasma membrane . Uses for protoplasts File Protoplast fusion.jpg thumb right Fused protoplast left with chloroplasts from a leaf cell and coloured vacuole from a petal . Protoplasts ... may also be used for plant breeding , using a technique called protoplast fusion . Protoplasts ... ar ca Protoplast cs Protoplast de Protoplast es Protoplasto eo Protoplasto eu Protoplasto fr Protoplaste it Protoplasto he nl Protoplast ja pl Protoplast pt Protoplasto ru sl Protoplast tr Protoplast uk ... more details
Unreferenced date December 2009 Dablink For the Magic The Gathering creature, see Creatures of Magic The Gathering Cytroplast Cytoplast , in cell biology, is the inner part of the cell biology cell without cell wall and plasma membrane . It includes cytoskeleton , organelles and cytosol . See also Protoplast Cytoplasm Category Cell biology it Citoplasto ... more details
Reference By anas sulemani , and got reference through the NWFP first year biology book, page number 159 Plasmogamy is a stage in the sexual reproduction of fungi . In this stage, the cytoplasm of two parent mycelia fuse together without the fusion of Nucleus cell nuclei , as occurs in higher terrestrial fungi. After plasmogamy occurs, the secondary mycelium forms. The secondary mycelium consists of dikaryotic cells, one nucleus from each of the parent mycelia. It is the fusion of protoplasm between two motile or non motile gametes. It involves the union of two protoplast bringing two haploid nuclei close together in the same cell... External links http www.biology online.org dictionary Plasmogamy Plasmogamy definition at Biology Online Category Mycology Fungus stub de Plasmogamie id Plasmogami it Plasmogamia mk nl Plasmogamie pt Plasmogamia ... more details
cleanup date September 2010 File Protoplast fusion.jpg thumb right Fused protoplast left with chloroplasts from a leaf cell and coloured vacuole from a petal . Somatic fusion , also called protoplast fusion , is a type of genetic modification in plants by which two distinct species of plants are fused together to form a new Hybrid biology hybrid plant with the characteristics of both, a somatic hybrid . Hybrids have been produced either between the different varieties of the same species e.g. between non flowering potato plants and flowering potato plants or between two different species e.g. between wheat triticum and rye secale to produce Triticale . Uses of somatic fusion include making potato plants resistant to potato leaf roll disease ref cite journal author Helgeson JP Hunt GJ Haberlach GT and Austin S year 1986 title Somatic hybrids between Solanum brevidens and Solanum tuberosum expression of a late blight resistance gene and potato leaf roll resistance journal Plant Cell Rep. volume 5 issue 3 pages 212 214 doi 10.1007 BF00269122 ref . Through somatic fusion, the crop potato plant Solanum tuberosum &ndash the yield of which is severely reduced by a viral disease transmitted on by the aphid Vector molecular biology vector &ndash is fused with the wild, non tuber bearing potato Solanum brevidens , which is resistant to the disease. The resulting hybrid has the chromosomes of both plants and is thus similar to polyploid plants. Process for plant cells The somatic fusion process occurs in four steps ref Cite document last Torrence first James title Higher Biology edition ... of each type of plant using cellulase enzyme to produce a somatic cell called a protoplast The cells ... binding Receptor biochemistry receptors in regenerating protoplast s of the moss Physcomitrella patens ... are easily put into protoplast culture. References reflist Category Genetic engineering Category Molecular biology Category Bioengineering Category Biotechnology ca Fusi de protoplast de Protoplastenfusion ... more details
Noref date January 2010 image Breeding transgenesis cisgenesis.svg thumb 300px right A diagram comparing the genetic changes achieved through conventional plant breeding, transgenesis and cisgenesis Transgenesis is the process of introducing an Exogeny exogenous gene called a transgene into a living organism so that the organism will exhibit a new property and transmit that property to its offspring . Transgenesis can be facilitated by liposomes , plasmid vector s, viral vector s, pronuclear injection, protoplast fusion , and gene gun ballistic DNA injection . Transgenic organism s are able to express foreign genes because the genetic code is similar for all organisms. This means that a specific DNA sequence will code for the same protein in all organisms. Using plasmids from bacteria The plasmid DNA is cut using restriction enzyme s, while the DNA to be copied is also cut with the same restriction enzyme, producing sticky end sticky ends . This allows the foreign DNA to hybridise with the plasmid DNA and be sealed by DNA enzyme ligase enzyme . See also Sperm mediated gene transfer Genetic engineering Genetics stub Category Genetic engineering ca Transg nesi es Transg nesis fa fr Transg n se it Transgenesi lt Transgenez ja ru scn Transg nisi uk ... more details
Tracheids are elongated cell biology cell s in the xylem of vascular plant s that serve in the transport of water and mineral salts. Tracheids are one of two types of tracheary elements, vessel element s being the other. All tracheary elements develop a thick lignified cell wall, and at maturity the protoplast has broken down and disappeared. ref cite book author Peter A. Raven, Ray F. Evert, Susan E. Eichhorn year 1999 title Biology of Plants publisher W.H. Freeman and Company pages 576 577 isbn 1 57259 611 2 nopp ref The presence of tracheary elements is the defining characteristic of vascular plants to differentiate them from non vascular plant s. Tracheid build varies by location. The two major functions that tracheids may fulfill are part of the transport system structural support In most cases, the prime function of tracheids is transporting water. They occur in vascular bundle s throughout the non woody parts of the vascular plant and provide water and minerals collected by the roots to leaves and other parts of the plant stem, flowers, fruits etc . A good example of structural support is in softwood s where tracheids are the major cell type. Tracheids give softwood its strength. Because tracheids have a much higher surface to volume ratio compared to vessel elements, they serve to hold water against gravity by adhesion when transpiration is not occurring. This is likely one mechanism that helps plants prevent air embolism s. See also Vessel element Xylem References reflist Wilson, K. & D.J.B. White 1986 . The Anatomy of Wood its Diversity and variability. Stobart & Son Ltd, London External links Pictures of softwood tracheids http botweb.uwsp.edu anatomy images gymnospermwood pages Anat0288.htm in cross section and http botweb.uwsp.edu anatomy images xylemdevelopment pages Anat0182.htm in maceration both in pine. Category Plant anatomy Category Plant physiology ca Traqueida cs C vice da Trakeider de Tracheide fr Trach ide it Tracheide nl Trache de pl Cewka d ... more details
Unreferenced date September 2010 Microinjection refers to the process of using a glass micropipette to insert substances at a microscopic or borderline macroscopic level into a single living cell biology cell . It is a simple mechanical process in which a needle roughly 0.5 to 5 micrometers in diameter penetrates the cell membrane and or the nuclear envelope . The desired contents are then injected into the desired sub cellular compartment and the needle is removed. Microinjection is normally performed under a specialized optical microscope setup called a micromanipulator . The process is frequently used as a Vector molecular biology vector in genetic engineering and transgenics to insert genetic material into a single cell. Microinjection can also be used in the cloning of organisms, and in the study of cell biology and viruses. Microcapillary and microscopic devices are used to deliver DNA into a protoplast. Examples One s can create simple transgenic organisms by injecting genes into the testicle,hehe, of a nematode at a point where the cells that will become its sperm are undergoing meiosis . Since the developing gametes share a common cytoplasm , all of the nematode s gametes will carry a foreign gene as the result of a single injection. Microinjection is used as a vector in transgenic plant production . Microinjection of genes into fertilized ovum eggs is a common vector used in the production of higher forms of Genetically modified organism transgenic animals . Microinjection of a gene knockdown reagent such as a morpholino oligo into Egg biology eggs or early zygotes is commonly used to probe the function of a gene during development of embryos . Sources http opbs.okstate.edu melcher MG MGW4 MG433.html Genetic engineering Biology The Unity and Diversity of Life Category Biotechnology Category Gene delivery ca Microinjecci es Microinyecci n fa no Mikroinjeksjon tr Mikroenjeksiyon ... more details
Other persons Harold Smith Harold Hill Smith 24 April 1910 19 October 1994 was an United States American geneticist who first fused a human Cell biology cell and a plant cell. ref name smith1976 Smith HH, Kao KN, Combatti NC 1976 . Interspecific hybridization by protoplast fusion in Nicotiana . The Journal of Heredity , 67 123 128, 1976. ref Life and career Born in Kearny, New Jersey , Smith graduated from Rutgers University and earned master s and doctoral degrees in genetics at Harvard University . He then worked for seven years at the United States Department of Agriculture before serving in the United States Navy in World War II . He was appointed professor of plant genetics at Cornell University and was senior geneticist at the Brookhaven National Laboratory from 1955 to his retirement in 1978. He died of natural causes in State College, Pennsylvania . ref name nytobit Saxon, Wolfgang October 25, 1994 . http query.nytimes.com gst fullpage.html?res 9B05E6D7143FF936A15753C1A962958260 Harold Hill Smith, 84, Geneticist Whose Work Led to Cell Fusion. New York Times ref References reflist Persondata Metadata see Wikipedia Persondata . NAME Smith, Harold Hill ALTERNATIVE NAMES SHORT DESCRIPTION DATE OF BIRTH 24 April 1910 PLACE OF BIRTH DATE OF DEATH 19 October 1994 PLACE OF DEATH DEFAULTSORT Smith, Harold Hill Category 1910 births Category 1994 deaths Category American military personnel of World War II Category Cornell University faculty Category Harvard University alumni Category People from Hudson County, New Jersey Category Rutgers University alumni Category Brookhaven National Laboratory staff geneticist stub US biologist stub ... more details
taxobox image Microcystis aeruginosa.jpeg image caption Microcystis aeruginosa name Microcystis regnum Bacteria subregnum Eubacteria phylum Cyanobacteria classis Cyanophyceae ordo Chroococcales familia Microcystaceae genus Microcystis genus authority K tzing, 1833 subdivision ranks species subdivision Many see below Microcystis is the genus of freshwater cyanobacteria which includes the harmful algal bloom Microcystis aeruginosa . ref name Encyclopedia of Life Chroococcales cite web title Chroococcales url http www.eol.org pages 3238 publisher EOL accessdate 24 June 2011 ref Etymology The generic moniker Microcystis derives from the Greek ref name Cyanobacteria Microcystis cite web title Cyanobacteria Microcystis url http silicasecchidisk.conncoll.edu LucidKeys Carolina Key html Microcystis Main.html work The Silica Secchi Disk publisher Connecticut College The SilicaSecchi Disk accessdate 24 June 2011 ref mikros small kystis bladder Characteristics As the etymological derivation implies, Microcystis is characterized by small cells of only a few microns diameter , which lack individual sheaths. ref name Cyanobacteria Microcystis The cells usually are organized into colonies large colonies of which may be viewed with the naked eye that begin in a spherical shape, but losing their coherence to become perforated or irregularly shaped over time. The coloration of the protoplast is a light blue green, appearing dark or brown due to optical effects of gas filled Vesicle biology vesicles this can be useful as a distinguishing characteristic when using light microscopy . Species Dozens, ref cite web title Taxonomy Browser Genus Microcystis url http www.algaebase.org browse taxonomy ?id 7066 work Taxonomy Browser Genus Microcystis publisher AlgaeBase accessdate 24 June 2011 ref including Microcystis aeruginosa Microcystis argentea Microcystis elongata Microcystis holsatica Microcystis lutescens Microcystis marina Microcystis pallida Microcystis salina Microcystis thermalis M ... more details
italic title Taxobox name Pediastrum image Pediastrum duplex wagner.jpg image caption Pediastrum duplex image width 240px domain Eukaryota regnum Protista divisio Chlorophyta classis Chlorophyceae ordo Chlorococcales familia Hydrodictyaceae genus Pediastrum genus authority Meyen, 1829 type species Pediastrum duplex subdivision ranks Species biology Species ref name Algaebase cite web url http www.algaebase.org browse taxonomy ?id 6976 publisher AlgaeBase version 4.2 World wide electronic publication, National University of Ireland, Galway accessdate 2007 09 25 title Genus Pediastrum taxonomy browser author Guiry, M.D. & Guiry, G.M. year 2007 ref subdivision Pediastrum angulosum P. angulosum Pediastrum bijuga P. bijuga Pediastrum biradiatum P. biradiatum Pediastrum boryanum P. boryanum Pediastrum braunii P. braunii Pediastrum conchense P. conchense Pediastrum contiguum P. contiguum Pediastrum duplex P. duplex Pediastrum ellipticum P. ellipticum Pediastrum gracillimum P. gracillimum Pediastrum integrum P. integrum Pediastrum orbitale P. orbitale Pediastrum simplex P. simplex Pediastrum tricyclium P. tricyclium Image Pediastrumboryanum.jpg thumb 240px right Pediastrum boryanum Pediastrum is a genus biology genus of algae , in the family Hydrodictyaceae . ref name Algaebase It is a nonmotile Coenobium coenobial fixed number of cells green alga that inhabits freshwater environments. Reproduction Pediastrum reproduces asexually by producing autocolonies. The protoplast of each parent cell gives rise to a biflagellate zoospore for each cell in the parent colony. The zoospores are freed from the parent cell within a vesicle and then arrange themselves into the cellular arrangement for that particular species. The cells then enlarge until they reach full size. Each cell can generate a daughter autocolony with exactly the same number and arrangement of cells as the parent colony. Pediastrum reproduces sexually via the fusion of small, biflagellate gametes that are released fr ... more details
Context date May 2009 Lipid microdomains are formed when lipid s undergo lateral phase matter phase separations yielding stable coexisting lamellar Lipid bilayer domain s. These phase separation s can be induced by changes in temperature , pressure , ionic strength or by the addition of divalent cation s or protein s. The question of whether such lipid microdomains observed in model lipid systems also exist in biomembrane s had motivated considerable research efforts. Lipid domains are not readily isolated and examined as unique species, in contrast to the examples of lateral heterogeneity . One can disrupt the membrane and demonstrate a heterogeneous range of composition in the population of the resulting Vesicle biology vesicles or fragment s. Electron microscopy can also be used to demonstrate lateral inhomogeneities in biomembranes. Often, lateral heterogeneity has been inferred from biophysical techniques where the obsereved signal indicates multiple populations rather than the expected homogenous population. An example of this is the measurement of the diffusion coefficient of a fluorescent lipid analogue in soybean protoplast s. Membrane microheterogeneity is sometimes inferred from the behavior of enzyme s, where the enzymatic activity does not appear to be correlated with the average lipid physical state exhibited by the bulk of the membrane. Often, the methods suggest regions with different lipid fluidity , as would be expected of coexisting gel and liquid crystal line phases within the biomembrane. This is also the conclusion of a series of studies where differential effects of perturbation caused by Cis trans isomerism cis and Cis trans isomerism trans fatty acid s are interpreted in terms of preferential partitioning of the two liquid crystalline and gel like domains. See also Commons category Lipids Biochemistry Essential fatty acid Lipid signaling Saturation chemistry References Biomembranes, Molecular structure and function, by Robert B. Gennis, p.&n ... more details
Image Hardwood Pores.jpg right thumb 300px Scanning electron microscope SEM image top and Transmission Light Microscope image bottom of vessel elements in Oak A vessel element is one of the cell types found in xylem , the water conducting tissue of plants. Vessel elements are typically found in the angiosperm s but absent from most gymnosperm s such as the conifers . Vessel elements are the building blocks of vessels, which constitute the major part of the water transporting system in the plants where they occur. Vessels form an efficient system for transporting water including necessary minerals from the root to the leaves and other parts of the plant. In secondary xylem, a vessel element originates from a fusiform initial in the Cambium botany cambium , at maturity the protoplast dies and disappears, but the lignified cell walls persist. It may be seen as a dead cell, which still has a function, and is still being protected by surrounding living cells. The cell wall is strongly lignified. At both ends there are openings that connect the individual vessel elements. These are called perforations or perforation plates. These perforations may have a variety of shapes the most common are the simple perforation a simple opening and the scalariform perforation several elongated openings on top of each other in a ladder like design . Other types include the foraminate perforation plate several round openings and reticulate perforation plate net like pattern, with many openings . The side walls will have pits, and may have spiral thickenings. The presence of vessels in xylem has been considered to be one of the key innovations that led to the success of the flowering plants. It was once thought that vessel elements were an evolutionary innovation of flowering plants, but their absence from some basal angiosperms and presence in some members of the Gnetales suggest that this hypothesis must be re examined vessel elements in Gnetales may not be homologous with those of angio ... more details
unreferenced date June 2011 An entomopathogenic fungus is a fungus that can act as a parasite of insect s and kills or seriously disables them. Image Grasshoppers killed by Beauveria bassiana USDA.jpg thumb right Grasshopper s killed by the entomopathogenic fungus Beauveria bassiana Ascomycota Hypocreales Typical life cycle Image Pandora neoaphidis.jpg thumb right Green peach aphid , Myzus persicae , killed by the fungus Pandora neoaphidis Zygomycota Entomophthorales Scale bar 0.3 mm. These fungi usually attach to the external body surface of insects in the form of microscopic spore s usually asexual, mitosporic spores also called conidia . Under permissive conditions of temperature and usually high moisture, these spores germinate, grow as hyphae and colonize the insect s cuticle eventually they bore through it and reach the insects body cavity hemocoel . Then, the fungal cells proliferate in the host body cavity, usually as walled hyphae or in the form of wall less protoplast s depending on the fungus involved . After some time the insect is usually killed sometimes by fungal toxins and new propagules spores are formed in on the insect if environmental conditions are again permissive usually high humidity is required for sporulation . Groups The entomopathogenic fungi include taxa from several of the main fungal groups and do not form a monophyletic group. Many common and or important entomopathogenic fungi are in the order Hypocreales of the Ascomycota the asexual anamorph phases Beauveria bassiana Beauveria , Metarhizium , Nomuraea , Paecilomyces Isaria , Hirsutella and the sexual teleomorph state Cordyceps others Entomophthora , Zoophthora , Pandora , Entomophaga belong in the order Entomophthorales of the Zygomycota . Related fungi attack and kill other invertebrates e.g. nematodes . Pest control Since they are considered natural mortality agents and environmentally safe, there is worldwide interest in the use and manipulation of entomopathogenic fungi for bio ... more details
A gene knockout abbreviation KO is a genetics genetic technique in which one of an organism s gene s is made inoperative knocked out of the organism . Also known as knockout organisms or simply knockouts , they are used in learning about a gene that has been sequencing sequenced , but which has an unknown or incompletely known function. Researchers draw inferences from the difference between the knockout organism and normal individuals. The term also refers to the process of creating such an organism, as in knocking out a gene. The technique is essentially the opposite of a gene knockin . Knockout is often abbreviated as KO . Knocking out two genes simultaneously in an organism is known as a double knockout DKO . Similarly the terms triple knockout TKO and quadruple knockouts QKO are used to describe 3 or 4 knocked out genes, respectively. Method File Knockout Mice5006 300.jpg thumb A laboratory mouse in which a gene affecting hair growth has been knocked out left , is shown next to a normal lab mouse. Knockout is accomplished through a combination of techniques, beginning in the test tube with a plasmid , a bacterial artificial chromosome or other DNA construct , and proceeding to cell culture . Individual cell biology cells are genetically Transformation genetics transformed with the DNA construct. Often the goal is to create a Genetically modified organism Transgenic animals transgenic animal that has the altered gene. If so, embryonic stem cell s are genetically transformed and inserted into early embryo s. Resulting animals with the genetic change in their germline cells can then often pass the gene knockout to future generations. To create knockout moss , transfection of protoplast s is the preferred method. Such transformed Physcomitrella patens Physcomitrella protoplasts directly Regeneration biology regenerate into fertile moss plants. Already eight weeks after transfection the plants can be screened for gene targeting via PCR . ref Ralf Reski 1998 Physcomi ... more details
Refimprove date March 2009 about the biological definition of the word Lysis other meanings Lysis disambiguation Lysis Greek language Greek , l sis from l ein to separate refers to the breaking down of a Cell biology cell , often by virus viral , enzyme enzymic , or osmosis osmotic mechanisms that compromise its integrity. A fluid containing the contents of lysed cells is called a lysate . Many species of bacteria are subject to lysis by the enzyme lysozyme , found in animal saliva , egg white , and other secretion s. ref Fastrez, J. Phage Lysozymes In Lysozymes model enzymes in biochemistry and biology, Pierre Joll s editor, Birkh user, 1996, pp. 35 64. ref Phage lytic enzymes lysins produced during bacteriophage infection are responsible for the ability of these viruses to lyse bacterial cells. ref Nelson, D., Loomis, L. & Fischetti, V. A. 2001 . Prevention and elimination of upper respiratory colonization of mice by group A streptococci by using a bacteriophage lytic enzyme. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, USA 98, 4107 12. ref Penicillin and related lactam antibiotic s cause the death of bacteria through enzyme mediated lysis that occurs after the drug causes the bacterium to form a defective cell wall . ref Scholar, E. M., Pratt W. B. The antimicrobial drugs, Oxford University Press US, 2nd ed., 2000, pp. 61 64. ref If cell wall is completely lost, the bacterium is referred as a protoplast if penicillin was used on gram positive bacteria , and spheroplast when used on gram negative bacteria . Cytolysis main Cytolysis Image Osmotic pressure on whole blood cells diagram.svg thumb 200px right blood cells under different solutions Cytolysis is the lysis of cell biology cells in a Tonicity Hypotonicity hypotonic environment the surrounding fluid has a lower salt concentration than the cell interior . Cytolysis is caused by excessive osmosis , or movement of water, toward the inside of a cell hyperhydration . The cell membrane cannot withstand ... more details
Wilhelm Friedrich Philipp Pfeffer 9 March 1845 31 January 1920 was a German botanist and plant physiology plant physiologist who was born in Grebenstein . Academic career He studied botany, physics and pharmacology at the University of G ttingen under Friedrich W hler 1800 1882 , William Eduard Weber 1804 1891 and Wilhelm Rudolph Fittig 1835 1910 . Afterwards he furthered his education at the Universities of University of Marburg Marburg and University of Berlin Berlin . At Berlin he studied under Alexander Braun 1805 1877 and was an assistant to Nathanael Pringsheim 1823 1894 . He later worked as an assistant to Julius von Sachs 1832 1897 at W rzburg , and in 1873 became a professor of pharmacology and botany at the University of Bonn . Later he worked as a professor at the Universities of University of Basel Basel from 1877 , University of T bingen T bingen from 1878 , where he served as director of the Botanischer Garten der Universit t T bingen , and University of Leipzig Leipzig from 1887 , where he was director of the Leipzig Botanical Garden . He was elected a member of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences in 1897. Scientific work Pfeffer was a pioneer of modern plant physiology . His scientific interests included the nastic thermonastic and nastic photonastic movements of flowers, the nyctinastic movements of leaves, protoplast ic physics and photosynthesis . In 1877, while researching metabolism plant metabolism , Pfeffer developed a semi porous membrane to study the phenomena of osmosis . The eponymous Pfeffer cell is named after the osmometer osmometric device he constructed to determine the osmotic pressure of a solution. ref http www.biologie.uni hamburg.de b online e22 22c.htm Botany online Membranes and Transport Osmosis bot generated title at www.biologie.uni hamburg.de ref During his tenure at Leipzig, Pfeffer published an article on the use of photography to study plant growth. He wanted to extend the chronophotography chronophotographic experimen ... more details
enzyme Name pectin lyase EC number 4.2.2.10 CAS number 9033 35 6 IUBMB EC number 4 2 2 10 GO code 0047490 image width caption In enzymology , a pectin lyase also known as pectolyase is a naturally occurring pectinase a type of enzyme that degrades pectin . It is produced commercially for the food industry from fungi and used to destroy residual fruit starch , known as pectin , in wine and cider . In plant cell culture, it is used in combination with the enzyme cellulase to generate protoplast s by degrading the plant cell walls . Pectin lyase is an enzyme that catalysis catalyzes the chemical reaction Eliminative cleavage of 1 4 alpha D galacturonan methyl ester to give oligosaccharides with 4 deoxy 6 O methyl alpha D galact 4 enuronosyl groups at their non reducing ends This enzyme belongs to the family of lyase s, specifically those carbon oxygen lyases acting on polysaccharides. Nomenclature The systematic name of this enzyme class is 1 4 6 O methyl alpha D galacturonan lyase . Other names in common use include div col colwidth 20em endo pectin lyase, pectin methyltranseliminase, pectin trans eliminase, pectolyase, PL, PMGL, PNL, and polymethylgalacturonic transeliminase. Div col end Structural studies As of late 2007, 3 tertiary structure structures have been solved for this class of enzymes, with Protein Data Bank PDB accession codes PDB link 1IDJ , PDB link 1IDK , and PDB link 1QCX . Biotechnology applications Pectin lyases are the only known pectinases capable of degrading highly esterified pectins like those found in fruits into small molecules via elimination mechanism without producing methanol which is toxic , in contrast with the combination of PG and PE, which are normally found in commercial products. In addition, the presence of undesirable enzymatic activity in commercial pectinases may be detrimental to aroma because they are responsible for producing unpleasant volatile off flavour. There are many reports of fruit juices clarification by pectin l ... more details
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