enzyme Name Hexokinase EC number 2.7.1.1 CAS number 9001 51 8 IUBMB EC number 2 7 1 1 GO code 0004396 image Hexokinase 3O08.png width caption Crystal structures of hexokinase 1 from Kluyveromyces lactis ... ref protein Name HK1 hexokinase 1 caption image width HGNCid 4922 Symbol HK1 AltSymbols EntrezGene ... protein Name HK2 hexokinase 2 caption image width HGNCid 4923 Symbol HK2 AltSymbols EntrezGene ... protein Name HK3 hexokinase 3 white cell caption image width HGNCid 4925 Symbol ... 5 Arm q Band 35.2 LocusSupplementaryData Infobox protein family Symbol Hexokinase 1 Name Hexokinase ... CDD Infobox protein family Symbol Hexokinase 2 Name Hexokinase 2 image PDB 1bg3 EBI.jpg width caption rat brain hexokinase type i complex with glucose and inhibitor glucose 6 phosphate Pfam PF03727 Pfam ... CAZy CDD A hexokinase is an enzyme that phosphorylation phosphorylates a six carbon sugar , a hexose ... across species Genes that encode hexokinase have been discovered in each domain of life, ranging from ... sequences that determine substrate affinities and other properties. Several hexokinase isoforms or isozyme s providing different functions can occur in a single species . Hexokinase should not be confused with the liver s glucokinase. While hexokinase is capable of phosphorylating several hexoses ... sub OH moiety. File Hexokinase glucose.png Action of Hexokinase on Glucose Consequences of hexose phosphorylation ... one hexokinase isoform. Most are about 100 kD in size and consist of two halves N and C terminal ... of a 50kD ancestral hexokinase similar to those of bacteria. Types of mammalian hexokinase There are four important mammal ian hexokinase isozymes EC number 2.7.1.1 that vary in subcellular locations ... similar 50kD halves, but only in hexokinase II do both halves have functional active sites. Hexokinase ... physiological, hormonal, and metabolic changes. Hexokinase II B constitutes the principal regulated isoform in many cell types and is increased in many cancers. Hexokinase III C is substrate inhibited ... more details
Infobox Disease Name PAGENAME Image Caption DiseasesDB ICD10 ICD10 D 55 2 d 55 ICD9 ICD9 282.3 ICDO OMIM 235700 MedlinePlus eMedicineSubj eMedicineTopic MeshID Hexokinase deficiency is an anemia causing condition associated with inadequate hexokinase . ref name urlDISORDERS OF RED CELLS cite web url http dwb.unl.edu teacher nsf c10 c10links www.emory.edu INT MED REV Atlanta paper paper.htm title DISORDERS OF RED CELLS format work accessdate 2009 02 07 ref ref name pmid7234862 cite journal author Paglia DE, Shende A, Lanzkowsky P, Valentine WN title Hexokinase New Hyde Park a low activity erythrocyte isozyme in a Chinese kindred journal Am. J. Hematol. volume 10 issue 2 pages 107 17 year 1981 pmid 7234862 doi 10.1002 ajh.2830100202 url ref Specifically, the HK1 isozyme is involved. ref OMIM 235700 ref See also List of hematologic conditions References reflist Myeloid hematologic disease Inborn errors of carbohydrate metabolism Category Hereditary hemolytic anemias Category Inborn errors of carbohydrate metabolism ... more details
PBB geneid 3098 Hexokinase 1 is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the HK1 gene . The PBB Summary ..., thus committing glucose to the glycolytic pathway. This gene encodes a ubiquitous form of hexokinase ... with hemolytic anemia due to hexokinase deficiency. Alternative splicing of this gene results ... to encode a protein. ref name entrez cite web title Entrez Gene HK1 hexokinase 1 url http ... K, Kanno H, Tancabelic J, Fujii H title Gene expression and biological significance of hexokinase ... hexokinase 1 gene to 10q11 qter. journal Hum. Hered. volume 42 issue 2 pages 107 10 year 1992 pmid ... A recombinant human mini hexokinase is catalytically active and regulated by hexose 6 phosphates. journal ... author Magnani M, Serafini G, Bianchi M, et al. title Human hexokinase type I microheterogeneity ... kinase activity of rat brain hexokinase. journal Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. volume 177 issue ... K, Blei F, Tilton W, et al. title An isozyme of hexokinase specific for the human red blood cell HKR ... S, Bell GI title Human hexokinase sequences of amino and carboxyl terminal halves are homologous ... al. title Generalized hexokinase deficiency in the blood cells of a patient with nonspherocytic hemolytic ... author Bianchi M, Magnani M title Hexokinase mutations that produce nonspherocytic hemolytic anemia ... X ray analysis of human brain hexokinase. journal FEBS Lett. volume 391 issue 1 2 pages 9 ... P, Moss SB, et al. title Properties and localization of a tyrosine phosphorylated form of hexokinase ... N, Welch JE, et al. title Testis specific expression of mRNAs for a unique human type 1 hexokinase ... K, Piomelli S title Identification of the cDNA for human red blood cell specific hexokinase isozyme ... A, Andreoni F, Magnani M title An erythroid specific exon is present in the human hexokinase gene ..., Foster JA, Rosenbaum NA, et al. title Targeting of a germ cell specific type 1 hexokinase lacking ... cite journal author Aleshin AE, Zeng C, Bourenkov GP, et al. title The mechanism of regulation of hexokinase ... more details
PBB geneid 3099 Hexokinase 2 also known as HK2 is an enzyme which in humans is encoded by the HK2 gene . ref name pmid8307259 cite journal author Lehto M, Xiang K, Stoffel M, Espinosa R, Groop LC, Le Beau MM, Bell GI title Human hexokinase II localization of the polymorphic gene to chromosome 2 journal Diabetologia volume 36 issue 12 pages 1299 302 year 1993 month December pmid 8307259 doi 10.1007 BF00400809 url ref Function Hexokinase s phosphorylate glucose to produce glucose 6 phosphate , thus committing glucose to the glycolysis glycolytic pathway . This gene encodes hexokinase 2, the predominant ... HK2 hexokinase 2 url http www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov sites entrez?Db gene&Cmd ShowDetailView&TermToSearch ... 1, and Hexokinase II Expressions in Cancers and Inflammatory Lesions of the Lung journal Neoplasia ... of hexokinase II mitochondrial binding in cancer cells journal J. Biol. Chem. volume 281 issue 20 ..., Yun M, et al. title Enzymatic properties of the N and C terminal halves of human hexokinase II journal ... journal author Printz RL, Osawa H, Ardehali H, et al. title Hexokinase II gene structure, regulation ... pmid 9056853 doi cite journal author Peng Q, Zhou J, Zhou Q, et al. title Silencing hexokinase II gene ... JG title Hexokinase II Detachment from the Mitochondria Potentiates Cisplatin Induced Cytotoxicity ... peptides interact with hexokinase to prevent its anti apoptotic activity journal J. Biol. Chem. volume ... Gimenez Cassina A, Lim F, Cerrato T, et al. title Mitochondrial hexokinase II promotes neuronal survival ... J, et al. title Stable RNA interference of hexokinase II gene inhibits human colon cancer LoVo ... Hexokinase 2 and Pyruvate Dehydrogenase Kinase 1 journal Mol. Cell. Biol. volume 27 issue 21 pages ... of Hexokinase 2 and Poor Prognosis journal Mol. Cancer Res. volume 7 issue 9 pages 1438 45 year ... JM, Zhou Q, et al. title Downregulation of the hexokinase II gene sensitizes human colon cancer cells ... transporters and hexokinase II in cholangiocellular carcinoma compared using 18F 2 fluro 2 deoxy ... more details
PBB geneid 3101 Hexokinase 3 also known as HK3 is an enzyme which in humans is encoded by the HK2 gene . ref name pmid8812439 cite journal author Furuta H, Nishi S, Le Beau MM, Fernald AA, Yano H, Bell GI title Sequence of human hexokinase III cDNA and assignment of the human hexokinase III gene HK3 to chromosome band 5q35.2 by fluorescence in situ hybridization journal Genomics volume 36 issue 1 pages 206 9 year 1996 month August pmid 8812439 doi 10.1006 geno.1996.0448 url ref ref name pmid8941369 cite journal author Colosimo A, Calabrese G, Gennarelli M, Ruzzo AM, Sangiuolo F, Magnani M, Palka G, Novelli G, Dallapiccola B title Assignment of the hexokinase type 3 gene HK3 to human chromosome band 5q35.3 by somatic cell hybrids and in situ hybridization journal Cytogenet. Cell Genet. volume 74 issue 3 pages 187 8 year 1996 pmid 8941369 doi 10.1159 000134409 url ref Function Hexokinase s phosphorylate glucose to produce glucose 6 phosphate , thus committing glucose to the glycolysis glycolytic pathway . This gene encodes hexokinase 3. Similar to hexokinases 1 and 2, this allosteric regulation ... title Entrez Gene HK3 hexokinase 3 url http www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov sites entrez?Db gene&Cmd ShowDetailView&TermToSearch ... Reid S, Masters C title On the developmental properties and tissue interactions of hexokinase. journal ... 85 80030 0 cite journal author Rijksen G, Staal GE, Beks PJ, et al. title Compartmentation of hexokinase ... D, Mason P, et al. title Purification and characterization of the carboxyl domain of human hexokinase ... determined polymorphism of a form of hexokinase, HK III, found in human leucocytes. journal ... III hexokinase journal Arch. Biochem. Biophys. volume 382 issue 2 pages 262 74 year 2000 pmid 11068878 doi 10.1006 abbi.2000.2019 cite journal author Lowes W, Walker M, Alberti KG, Agius L title Hexokinase ... Furuta H, Nishi S, Le Beau MM, et al. title Sequence of human hexokinase III cDNA and assignment of the human hexokinase III gene HK3 to chromosome band 5q35.2 by fluorescence in situ hybridization ... more details
Chembox verifiedrevid 443934920 Name small D small Mannoheptulose ImageFile Mannoheptulose.svg ImageSize 200px IUPACName small D small Manno hept 2 ulose OtherNames Section1 Chembox Identifiers CASNo Ref cascite correct ?? CASNo 3615 44 9 PubChem 12600 ChemSpiderID Ref chemspidercite correct chemspider ChemSpiderID 12080 StdInChI Ref stdinchicite correct chemspider StdInChI 1S C7H14O7 c8 1 3 10 5 12 7 14 6 13 4 11 2 9 h3,5 10,12 14H,1 2H2 t3 ,5 ,6 ,7 m1 s1 StdInChIKey Ref stdinchicite correct chemspider StdInChIKey HSNZZMHEPUFJNZ QMTIVRBISA N SMILES O C C H O C H O C H O C H O CO CO InChI 1S C7H14O7 c8 1 3 10 5 12 7 14 6 13 4 11 2 9 h3,5 10,12 14H,1 2H2 t3 ,5 ,6 ,7 m1 s1 Section2 Chembox Properties C 7 H 14 O 7 Appearance Density MeltingPt BoilingPt Solubility Section3 Chembox Hazards MainHazards FlashPt Autoignition Mannoheptulose is a hexokinase enzyme inhibitor inhibitor . It is a heptose , a monosaccharide with seven carbon atoms. By blocking the enzyme hexokinase, it prevents glucose phosphorylation . As a result, the breakdown of glucose is inhibited. It is found as small D small mannoheptulose in avocado avocados . ref cite journal last1 Dai first1 N last2 Schaffer first2 A last3 Petreikov first3 M last4 Shahak first4 Y last5 Giller first5 Y last6 Ratner first6 K last7 Levine first7 A last8 Granot first8 D title Overexpression of Arabidopsis hexokinase in tomato plants inhibits growth, reduces photosynthesis, and induces rapid senescence journal The Plant cell volume 11 issue 7 pages 1253 66 year 1999 pmid 10402427 pmc 144264 ref References reflist Carbohydrates biochemistry stub Category Ketoheptoses hu Mannoheptul z pl Mannoheptuloza ... more details
PL title Warburg, me and Hexokinase 2 Multiple discoveries of key molecular events underlying one ... interruption of this latter process by the enzyme inhibitor inhibition of the enzyme hexokinasehexokinase ... more details
wiktionary HK .hk HK is Hong Kong, a special administrative region of the People s Republic of China. HK may also refer to Organisations Heckler & Koch , a German firearms company Handel og Kontor I Norge , the Union of Employees in Commerce and Offices in Norway Handels og Kontorfunktion rernes Forbund i Danmark , the National Union of Commercial and Clerical Employees in Denmark Handknattleiksf lag K pavogs , an Icelandic sports club Harman Kardon , a manufacturer of home and car audio equipment HKScan , formerly Helsingin Kauppiaat , a Finnish meat producer Four Star Aviation s IATA airline designator Other uses .hk , Hong Kong s country top level Internet domain HK Magazine , Hong Kong based English language weekly published by Asia City Publishing Limited Hakenkreuz , the swastika as a symbol of the Nazi party Hexokinase , an enzyme Sobolev space H sup k sup , in mathematics Hilfskreuzer literally auxiliary cruiser in German , commerce raiders operated by Germany during World War II Hefnerkerze , an old photometric unit of luminous intensity See also HK , the Hong Kong dollar HK 47 , fictional assassin droid from Star Wars video games Hunter killer disambiguation Hell s Kitchen disambiguation disambiguation cs HK da HK de HK eo Hk fr HK ko HK id HK it HK sw HK lv HK lt HK nl HK ja HK no Hk ro HK sl HK fi Hk sv HK tr HK vi HK zh HK ... more details
enzyme Name polyphosphate glucose phosphotransferase EC number 2.7.1.63 CAS number 9033 50 5 IUBMB EC number 2 7 1 63 GO code 0047330 image width caption Orphan date February 2009 In enzymology , a polyphosphate glucose phosphotransferase EC number 2.7.1.63 is an enzyme that catalysis catalyzes the chemical reaction phosphate n D glucose math rightleftharpoons math phosphate n 1 D glucose 6 phosphate Thus, the two substrate biochemistry substrates of this enzyme are phosphate n and D glucose , whereas its two product chemistry products are phosphate n 1 and D glucose 6 phosphate . This enzyme belongs to the family of transferase s, specifically those transferring phosphorus containing groups phosphotransferase s with an alcohol group as acceptor. The systematic name of this enzyme class is polyphosphate D glucose 6 phosphotransferase . Other names in common use include polyphosphate glucokinase , polyphosphate D glucose 6 phosphotransferase , and polyphosphate glucose 6 phosphotransferase . This enzyme participates in glycolysis gluconeogenesis . It employs one cofactor biochemistry cofactor , neutral salt . Structural studies As of late 2007, only one tertiary structure structure has been solved for this class of enzymes, with the Protein Data Bank PDB accession code PDB link 1WOQ . References reflist 1 cite journal author Szymona M date 1962 title Purification and properties of a new hexokinase utilizing inorganic pyrophosphate journal Acta Biochim. Pol. volume 9 pages 165&ndash 181 cite journal author Szymona M and Ostrowski W date 1964 title Inorganic polyphosphate glucokinase of Mycobacterium phlei journal Biochim. Biophys. Acta volume 85 pages 283&ndash 295 pmid 14212975 enzyme stub Category EC 2.7.1 Category Enzymes of known structure ... more details
imaging uptake of Fluorodeoxyglucose 2 sup 18 sup F 2 deoxyglucose FDG a radioactive modified hexokinase ... glycolytic rates to an overexpressed form of mitochondrially bound hexokinase ref cite journal author ... hexokinase journal Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. volume 74 issue 9 pages 3735 3739 year ... 18337823 doi 10.1038 nature06734 ref ref cite journal author Pedersen PL title Warburg, me and Hexokinase ... more details
is most likely used in correlation with gluconeolysis. The product s inhibition of hexokinase ... inhibit hexokinase stopping the production glucose 6 phosphate from D glucose . Its activation ... more details
step in glycolysis is phosphorylation of glucose by a family of enzymes called hexokinase s to form ... of hexokinase called glucokinase is also used in the liver, which has a much lower affinity ... enzyme Hexokinase HK br a transferase reverse enzyme substrate small D small Glucose Glc product small ... step, hexokinase converts glucose into glucose 6 phosphate. Instead of continuing through the glycolysis ... regulated enzymes are hexokinase , phosphofructokinase 1 phosphofructokinase , and pyruvate ... by hexokinase, phosphofructokinase, and pyruvate kinase are effectively irreversible in most organisms ..., and all three enzymes serve this purpose in glycolysis. Hexokinase File Hexokinase B 1IG8 wpmp.png thumb right Yeast hexokinase B. PDB 1IG8 . In animals, regulation of blood glucose levels by the pancreas ... is high in blood. Liver contains both hexokinase and glucokinase the latter catalyses the phosphorylation ..., fatty acids, and cholesterol even when hexokinase activity is low. ref Voet D., and Voet ... 2 sup 18 sup F 2 deoxyglucose FDG a radioactive modified hexokinase substrate biochemistry substrate ... more details
Drugbox Watchedfields changed verifiedrevid 444558328 IUPAC name 1 2,4 dichlorobenzyl 1 H indazole 3 carboxylic acid image Lonidamine.svg Clinical data tradename pregnancy AU A B1 B2 B3 C D X pregnancy US A B C D X pregnancy category legal AU S2, S3, S4, S5, S6, S7, S8, S9 or Unscheduled legal CA Schedule I, II, III, IV, V, VI, VII, VIII legal UK GSL, P, POM, CD, or Class A, B, C legal US OTC Rx only Schedule I, II, III, IV, V legal status routes of administration Pharmacokinetic data bioavailability protein bound metabolism elimination half life excretion Identifiers CAS number 50264 69 2 ATC prefix L01 ATC suffix XX07 PubChem 39562 DrugBank Ref drugbankcite correct drugbank DrugBank UNII Ref fdacite correct FDA UNII U78804BIDR KEGG Ref keggcite correct kegg KEGG D07257 Chemical data C 15 H 10 Cl 2 N 2 O 2 molecular weight 321.158 g mol Lonidamine is a derivative of indazole 3 carboxylic acid, which for a long time, has been known to inhibit aerobic glycolysis in cancer cells. It seems to enhance aerobic glycolysis in normal cells, but suppress glycolysis in cancer cells. This is most likely through the inhibition of the mitochondrially bound hexokinase . Later studies in Ehrlich ascites tumor cells showed that lonidamine inhibits both respiration and glycolysis leading to a decrease in cellular ATP. ref name pmid16892078 cite journal author Pelicano H, Martin DS, Xu RH, Huang P title Glycolysis inhibition for anticancer treatment journal Oncogene volume 25 issue 34 pages 4633 4646 year 2006 month August pmid 16892078 doi 10.1038 sj.onc.1209597 url http www.kosen21.org upload repository2 community 01230411451209597a.pdf ref Clinical trials of lonidamine in combination with other anticancer agents for a variety of cancers has begun. This is due to its proven ability to inhibit energy metabolism in cancer cells, and to enhance the activity of anticancer agents. ref name pmid16892078 Lonidamine has been used in the treatment of brain tumours in combination with radiot ... more details
DISPLAYTITLE small L small Glucose chembox verifiedrevid 415308305 Name small L small Glucose ImageFile L Glucose structure.svg ImageSize 180px IUPACName small L small Glucose Section1 Chembox Identifiers Abbreviations L Glc CASNo 921 60 8 EINECS 213 068 3 PubChem 206 ChemSpiderID Ref chemspidercite correct chemspider ChemSpiderID SMILES Section2 Chembox Properties Formula C sub 6 sub H sub 12 sub O sub 6 sub MolarMass 180.16 g mol Density 1.54 g cm sup 3 sup Solubility 91 g 100 ml 25 C Section7 Chembox Hazards ExternalMSDS http www.inchem.org documents icsc icsc eics0865.htm ICSC 0865 EUIndex not listed small L small Glucose is an organic compound with formula C sub 6 sub H sub 12 sub O sub 6 sub or H C O CHOH sub 5 sub H, specifically one of the aldohexose monosaccharide s. Its molecular structure is an enantiomer of the more common glucose small D small glucose . small L small Glucose does not occur naturally in higher living organisms, but can be chemical synthesis synthesized in the laboratory. small L small Glucose is indistinguishable in taste from small D small glucose, ref name levin but cannot be used by living organisms as source of energy because it cannot be phosphorylated by hexokinase , the first enzyme in the glycolysis pathway. One of the known exceptions is in Burkholderia caryophylli , the enzyme small D small threo aldolse dehydrogenase is capable of oxidising small L small glucose ref cite doi 10.1016 0005 2744 79 90232 8 ref Like the small D small isomer, small L small glucose usually occurs as one of four cyclic tautomerism tautomers and small L small glucopyranose the most common, with a six atom ring , and and small L small glucofuranose with a five atom ring . In solution, these isomers interconvert in matters of hours, with the open chain form as an intermediate stage. Uses small L small Glucose was once proposed as a low calorie sweetener, but was never marketed due to excessive manufacturing costs. ref name levin citation title A ... more details
Infobox protein family Symbol GHMP kinases N Name GHMP kinases N terminal domain image PDB 1k47 EBI.jpg width caption crystal structure of the streptococcus pneumoniae phosphomevalonate kinase pmk Pfam PF00288 Pfam clan CL0329 InterPro IPR006204 SMART PROSITE PDOC00545 MEROPS SCOP 1fwl TCDB OPM family OPM protein CAZy CDD Infobox protein family Symbol GHMP kinases C Name GHMP kinases C terminal image PDB 1s4e EBI.jpg width caption pyrococcus furiosus galactokinase in complex with galactose, adp and magnesium Pfam PF08544 Pfam clan InterPro IPR013750 SMART PROSITE PDOC00545 MEROPS SCOP 1fwl TCDB OPM family OPM protein CAZy CDD In molecular biology, the GHMP kinase family is a protein family family of kinase enzymes . Members of this family include homoserine kinase homoserine kinases EC number 2.7.1.39 , galactokinase galactokinases EC number 2.7.1.6 , and mevalonate kinase mevalonate kinases EC number 2.7.1.36 . These kinases make up the GHMP kinase Superfamily molecular biology superfamily of Adenosine triphosphate ATP dependent enzyme s. ref name pmid8382990 cite journal author Bork P, Sander C, Valencia A title Convergent evolution of similar enzymatic function on different protein folds the hexokinase, ribokinase, and galactokinase families of sugar kinases journal Protein Sci. volume 2 issue 1 pages 31 40 year 1993 month January pmid 8382990 pmc 2142297 doi 10.1002 pro.5560020104 url ref These enzymes are involved in the biosynthesis of isoprene isoprenes and amino acid s as well as in carbohydrate metabolism . These enzymes contain, in their N terminal section, a conserved sequence conserved Glycine Gly Serine Ser rich region which is probably involved in the binding of ATP. ref name pmid1846667 cite journal author Tsay YH, Robinson GW title Cloning and characterization of ERG8, an essential gene of Saccharomyces cerevisiae that encodes phosphomevalonate kinase journal Mol. Cell. Biol. volume 11 issue 2 pages 620 31 year 1991 month February pmid 1846667 pmc 35 ... more details
on the sixth carbon. This is catalyzed by the enzyme hexokinase in most cells, and, in higher ... ATP is consumed in this reaction. Enzymatic Reaction foward enzyme Hexokinase reverse enzyme Glucose ... more details
that the mitochondrial hexokinase is the enzyme responsible for driving the high rates ... modified hexokinase Substrate biochemistry substrate with positron emission tomography PET . ref http ... that the functional association of glucokinase a hexokinase isoform to mitochondrial ... more details
for metabolism in the liver. HexokinaseHexokinase IV Glucokinase , also occurs in the liver ..., on the other hand, is not phosphorylated Km of hepatic glucokinase hexokinase IV 10 mM ... more details
distinguish Gluconeogenesis Glycogenesis is the process of glycogen synthesis, in which glucose molecules are added to chains of glycogen for storage. This process is activated during rest periods following the Cori cycle , in the liver , and also activated by insulin in response to high glucose levels, for example after a carbohydrate containing meal. Steps Glucose is converted into glucose 6 phosphate by the action of glucokinase or hexokinase . Glucose 6 phosphate is converted into glucose 1 phosphate by the action of Phosphoglucomutase , passing through an obligatory intermediate step of glucose 1,6 bisphosphate . Glucose 1 phosphate is converted into UDP glucose by the action of Uridyl Transferase also called UDP glucose pyrophosphorylase and pyrophosphate is formed, which is hydrolyzed by pyrophosphatase into 2 molecules of Pi. Glucose molecules are assembled in a chain by glycogen synthase , which must act on a pre existing glycogen primer or glycogenin small protein that forms the primer . The mechanism for joining glucose units is that glycogen synthase binds to UDPG, causing it to break down into an oxonium ion, also formed in glycogenolysis . This oxonium ion can readily add to the 4 hydroxyl group of a glucosyl residue on the 4 end of the glycogen chain. Branches are made by branching enzyme also known as amylo 1 4 1 6 transglycosylase , which transfers the end of the chain onto an earlier part via 1 6 glucosidic bond, forming branches, which further grow by addition of more 1 4 glucosidic units. Control and regulation Glycogenesis responds to hormonal control. One of the main forms of control is the varied phosphorylation of glycogen synthase and glycogen phosphorylase. This is regulated by enzymes under the control of hormonal activity, which is in turn regulated by many factors. As such, there are many different possible effectors when compared to allosteric systems of regulation. Epinephrine Adrenaline seealso Epinephrine Glycogen phosphoryla ... more details
Refimprove date October 2008 Also called the sorbitol aldose reductase pathway , the polyol pathway appears to be implicated in diabetic complications, especially in microvascular damage to the retina , kidney , ref name Forbes cite journal last Forbes first JM coauthors Coughlan MT, Cooper ME title Oxidative stress as a major culprit in kidney disease in diabetes journal Diabetes volume 57 issue 6 pages 1446 1454 month June year 2008 url http diabetes.diabetesjournals.org cgi content full 57 6 1446 pmid 18511445 doi 10.2337 db08 0057 ref and nerves . ref http www.biology online.org dictionary ref Sorbitol cannot cross cell membranes , and, when it accumulates, it produces osmotic stresses on cells by drawing water into the insulin independent tissues. ref Investigative Ophthalmology & Visual Science, Vol 20, 314 326, Copyright 1981 by Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology ref Pathway Cells use glucose for energy however, unused glucose enters the polyol pathway when aldose reductase reduces it to sorbitol. This reaction oxidizes NADPH to NADP . Sorbitol dehydrogenase can then oxidize sorbitol to fructose , which also produces NADH from NAD . Hexokinase can return the molecule to the glycolysis pathway by phosphorylating fructose to form fructose 6 phosphate. However, in uncontrolled diabetics that have high blood glucose more than the glycolysis pathway can handle the reaction s mass balance ultimately favors the production of sorbitol. Activation of the polyol pathway results in a decrease of reduced NADP and oxidized NAD these are necessary cofactors in redox reactions throughout the body. The decreased concentration of these cofactor biochemistry cofactor s leads to decreased synthesis of reduced glutathione , nitric oxide , myo inositol , and taurine . Myo inositol is particularly required for the normal function of nerves. Sorbitol may also glycate nitrogen s on proteins , such as collagen , and the products of these glycations are referred to a ... more details
PBB geneid 5238 Phosphoacetylglucosamine mutase is an enzyme that in humans is encoded by the PGM3 gene . ref name pmid12174217 cite journal author Pang H, Koda Y, Soejima M, Kimura H title Identification of human phosphoglucomutase 3 PGM3 as N acetylglucosamine phosphate mutase AGM1 journal Ann Hum Genet volume 66 issue Pt 2 pages 139 44 year 2002 month Aug pmid 12174217 pmc doi 10.1017 S0003480002001033 ref ref name pmid10721701 cite journal author Li C, Rodriguez M, Banerjee D title Cloning and characterization of complementary DNA encoding human N acetylglucosamine phosphate mutase protein journal Gene volume 242 issue 1 2 pages 97 103 year 2000 month Apr pmid 10721701 pmc doi 10.1016 S0378 1119 99 00543 0 ref ref name entrez cite web title Entrez Gene PGM3 phosphoglucomutase 3 url http www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov sites entrez?Db gene&Cmd ShowDetailView&TermToSearch 5238 accessdate ref The PBB Summary template is automatically maintained by Protein Box Bot. See Template PBB Controls to Stop updates. PBB Summary section title summary text References reflist Further reading refbegin 2 PBB Further reading citations cite journal author Chen SH, Anderson JE, Giblett ER, Stamatoyannopoulos G title Isozyme patterns in erythrocytes from human fetuses. journal Am. J. Hematol. volume 3 issue pages 23 8 year 1978 pmid 203189 doi cite journal author Yoshida H, Abe T, Nakamura F title Studies on the frequencies of PGM1, PGM3 and Es D types from hair roots in Japanese subjects and the determination of these types from old hair roots. journal Forensic Sci. Int. volume 14 issue 1 pages 1 7 year 1979 pmid 468082 doi 10.1016 0379 0738 79 90150 6 cite journal author Marshall MJ, Neal FE, Goldberg DM title Isoenzymes of hexokinase, 6 phosphogluconate dehydrogenase, phosphoglucomutase and lactate dehydrogenase in uterine cancer. journal Br. J. Cancer volume 40 issue 3 pages 380 90 year 1980 pmid 508567 doi 10.1038 bjc.1979.192 pmc 2010033 cite journal author Cantu JM, Ibarra B title Phosph ... more details
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