Image EarthAtmosphereBig.jpg thumb 100px right Earth atmosphere diagram showing the exosphere and other layers. The layers are to scale. From Earth s surface to the top of the stratosphere 50km is just under 1 of Earth s radius. The exosphere is the uppermost layer of the atmosphere . In the exosphere, an upward travelling molecule moving fast enough to attain escape velocity can escape to space with a low chance of collisions if it is moving below escape velocity it will be prevented from escaping from the celestial body by gravity . In either case, such a molecule is unlikely to collide with another molecule due to the exosphere s low density . Earth s exosphere The main gas es within the Earth s exosphere are the lightest gases, mainly hydrogen , with some helium , carbon dioxide , and atomic oxygen near the exobase. The exosphere is the last layer before outer space . Since there is no clear boundary between outer space and the exosphere, the exosphere is sometimes considered a part of outer space. Lower boundary The altitude of its lower boundary, known as the thermopause and exobase , ranges from about convert 250 to 500 km lk on depending on solar activity. Citation needed date January 2009 Its lower boundary at the edge of the thermosphere has sometimes been estimated to be convert 500 to 1000 km abbr on above the Earth s surface. Citation needed date January 2009 The exobase is also called the critical level , the lowest altitude of the exosphere, and is typically defined in one here are the negligible atomic collisions between the particles and The height above which constituent atoms are on purely ballistic trajectories. If we define the exobase as the height at which ... boundary The upper boundary of the exosphere can be defined theoretically by the altitude about convert ... on atomic hydrogen velocities exceeds that of the Earth s gravitational pull. The exosphere observable .... The exosphere is a transitional zone between Earth s atmosphere and interplanetary space. References ... more details
The geocorona is the luminous part of the outermost region of the Earth s atmosphere , the exosphere . It is seen primarily via ultraviolet far ultraviolet light Lyman series Lyman alpha from the Sun that is Scattering scattered from neutral hydrogen . It extends to at least 15.5 Earth radii . The geocorona has been studied from outer space by the Astrid satellites Astrid satellites and the Galileo spacecraft among others , using its ultraviolet spectrometer UVS during an Earth flyby . See also Corona Geomagnetic storm External links http pluto.space.swri.edu IMAGE glossary geocorona.html Geocorona at Southwest Research Institute earthsatmosphere Category Planetary atmospheres climate stub fr Geocorona pt Geocorona ... more details
Image EarthAtmosphereBig.jpg thumb 80px right Earth atmosphere diagram showing the exosphere and other layers. The layers are to scale. From Earth s surface to the top of the stratosphere convert 50 km mi is just under 1 of Earth s radius. The thermosphere is the biggest of all the layers of the earth s atmosphere directly above the mesosphere and directly below the exosphere . Within this layer, ultraviolet radiation causes ion ization. The International Space Station has a stable orbit within the middle of the thermosphere, between convert 320 and 380 km mi . Aurora astronomy Auroras also occur in the thermosphere. Named from the Greek language Greek thermos for heat, the thermosphere begins about convert 80 km mi above the earth. ref Duxbury & Duxbury. Introduction to the World s Oceans. 5ed. 1997 ref At these high altitudes, the residual atmospheric gases sort into strata according to molecular mass see turbosphere . Thermospheric temperature s increase with altitude due to absorption of highly energetic solar radiation by the small amount of residual oxygen still present. Temperatures are highly dependent on solar activity, and can rise to convert 1500 C F . Radiation causes the atmosphere particles in this layer to become electrically charged see ionosphere , enabling radio wave s to bounce off and be received beyond the horizon. At the exosphere , beginning at convert 500 to 1000 km mi above the Earth s surface, the atmosphere turns into outer space space . The highly diluted gas in this layer can reach convert 2500 C F during the day. Even though the temperature is so high, one would not feel warm in the thermosphere, because it is so near vacuum that there is not enough contact with the few atoms of gas to transfer much heat. A normal thermometer would read significantly below convert 0 C F , due to the energy lost by thermal radiation overtaking the energy ... Thermopause Ionosphere Stratopause Troposphere Stratosphere Mesosphere Exosphere Mesopause ... more details
2 Mercury planet Mercury has a very tenuous and highly variable atmosphere surface bound exosphere containing ... was confirmed in 1974 when the Mariner 10 spacecraft discovered only a tenuous exosphere. Later ... in the Hermian exosphere. History Mercury is the most difficult planet to observe due to its proximity ... 10 flybys confirmed that conclusion, discovering only a tenuous surface bound exosphere i.e. ... Composition The Hermian exosphere consists of a variety of species originating either from the Solar ... PIA12366 .jpg thumb right Ca and Mg in the tail The fourth species detected in Mercury s exosphere ..., Potter and Morgan reported that potassium K is also present in the exosphere of Mercury, though with a column ... exosphere. The near surface abundance of this newly detected constituent is roughly comparable ... of the Hermian exosphere depends on species as well as geographical location. For exospheric ... s exosphere is constantly escaping into space, implying that some process resupplies its constituents ... the Hermian exosphere is extremely changeable its atomic concentrations can fluctuate by orders ... Mercury s Atmosphere A Surface Bounded Exosphere year 2007 journal Space Science Reviews volume 131 ... the Exosphere of Mercury year 2007 journal Space Science Reviews volume 132 issue 2 4 pages 433 ... first William E. coauthors Bradley, E. Todd Vervack Jr., Ronald J. et al. title Mercury s Exosphere .... Todd et al. title MESSENGER Observations of Mercury s Exosphere Detection of Magnesium and Distribution ..., George et al. title MESSENGER Observations of the Composition of Mercury s Ionized Exosphere ... more details
The Jacchia Reference Atmosphere is an atmospheric model that define values for atmospheric temperature, density, pressure and other properties at altitudes from 90 to 2500 km. Unlike the more common US Standard Atmosphere and related models, the Jacchia model includes latitudinal, seasonal, geomagnetic, and solar effects, but must be supplemented with another model at lower altitudes. The model, first published in 1970 and updated in 1971 and 1977, is based on spacecraft drag data, and is primarily used in spacecraft modeling and related fields. A common assumption while using the Jacchia Model is that the atmosphere rotates with the Earth as a rigid body. See also Atmospheric models NRLMSISE 00 International Standard Atmosphere US Standard Atmosphere External links http modelweb.gsfc.nasa.gov atmos jacchia.html NASA GSFC ModelWeb Jacchia page http letitbit.net download 27148.279379ecef1a0f5b9e1ce08a4 Jacchia 77 Atmospheric Model en .exe.html Jacchia 77 Model in digits References L. G. Jacchia, Static Diffusion Models of the Upper Atmosphere with Empirical Temperature Profiles, Smithson. Astrophys. Obs. Spec. Rept. No. 170, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1964. B08448 L. G. Jacchia, Revised Static Models of the Thermosphere and Exosphere with Empirical Temperature Profiles, Smithson. Astrophys. Obs. Spec. Rept. No. 332, 1971. B10091 L. G. Jacchia, Thermospheric Temperature, Density, and Composition New Models, Smithson. Astrophys. Obs. Spec. Rept. No. 375, 1977. Category Atmosphere climate stub ru Jacchia ... more details
Most climate models simulate a region of the Earth s atmosphere from the surface to the stratopause . There also exist numerical models which simulate the wind, temperature and composition of the Earth s tenuous upper atmosphere , from the mesosphere to the exosphere , including the ionosphere . This region is affected strongly by the 11 year Solar cycle through variations in solar UV EUV Xray radiation and solar wind leading to high latitude particle precipitation and Aurora astronomy aurora . It has been proposed that these phenomena may have an effect on the lower atmosphere, and should therefore be included in simulations of climate change. For this reason there has been a drive in recent years to create whole atmosphere models to investigate whether or not this is the case. External links Two examples of upper atmospheric models are http www.hao.ucar.edu modeling tgcm NCAR TIE GCM 97 to 450km , NCAR TIME GCM 30 to 450km http www.apl.ucl.ac.uk research modelling.html UCL CTIP 80km to 450km , UCL CMAT 30km to 450km http www.uam.mstu.edu.ru index.php Welcome to UAM UAM is the global mathematical model of the Earth s upper atmosphere mesosphere, thermosphere, ionosphere, plasmasphere and inner magnetosphere . An example of a whole atmosphere model is http waccm.acd.ucar.edu WACCM 0 140km br Atmospheric, Oceanographic and Climate Models Category Numerical climate and weather models climate stub ru ... more details
Unreferenced date November 2006 The thermopause is the Earth s atmosphere atmospheric boundary of Earth s energy system, located at the top of the thermosphere . Below this, the atmosphere is defined to be active on the insolation received, due to the increased presence of heavier gases such as monoatomic oxygen. The solar constant is thus expressed at the thermopause. Beyond above this, the exosphere describes the thinnest remainder of atmospheric particles with large mean free path, mostly hydrogen and helium. The exact altitude varies by the energy inputs of location, time of day, solar flux, season, etc. and can be between 500 1000 km high at a given place and time because of these. A South Atlantic Anomaly portion of the magnetosphere dips below this layer as well. Although these are all named layers of the atmosphere, the pressure is so negligible that the chiefly used definitions of outer space are actually below this altitude. Orbiting satellites do not experience significant atmospheric heating, but their orbits do decay over time, depending on orbit altitude. Space missions such as the International space station ISS , space shuttle , and Soyuz programme Soyuz operate under this layer. Earthsatmosphere Category Atmospheric thermodynamics Category Atmosphere Sci stub cs Termopauza de Thermopause et Termopaus es Termopausa fr Thermopause ko it Termopausa hu Termopauza nl Thermopauze pl Termopauza pt Termopausa sr th uk ... more details
Image Atmosphere model.png thumb right 280px NRLMSISE output NRLMSISE 00 is an empirical , global Mathematical model model of the Earth s atmosphere from ground to space. It models the temperature s and density densities of the atmosphere s components. A primary use of this model is to aid predictions of satellite orbital decay due to atmospheric drag . The model, developed by Mike Picone, Alan Hedin, and Doug Drob, is based on the earlier models MSIS 86 and MSISE 90, but updated with actual satellite drag data. It also predicts anomalous oxygen . NRL stands for the US Naval Research Laboratory . MSIS stands for Mass Spectrometer and Incoherent Scatter Radar respectively, the two primary data sources for development of earlier versions of the model. E indicates that the model extends from the ground through exosphere and 00 is the year of release. According to the NRL website, NRLMSISE 00 is the standard for international space research. The inputs for the model are Year and day time of day altitude latitude geodetic latitude longitude geodetic longitude local apparent solar time 81 day average of F10.7 solar flux daily F10.7 solar flux for previous day Daily magnetic index Output of the model is Helium Number density Oxygen O Number density Oxygen O sub 2 sub Number density Nitrogen N Number density Nitrogen N sub 2 sub Number density Argon Number density H Hydrogen Number density total mass density Anomalous oxygen Number density Exospheric temperature temperature at altitude See also Atmospheric models International Standard Atmosphere links to 1976 standard. External links http www.nrl.navy.mil content.php?P 03REVIEW105 NRL NRLMSISE 00 website http uap www.nrl.navy.mil uap ?code 7643 content nrlmsise00.dist17 Fortran source code http g.yi.org ?f 3507 Compiled dll and GUI front end source code http uap www.nrl.navy.mil models web homepage.htm other NRL weather models http ccmc.gsfc.nasa.gov modelweb atmo more atmosphere models from NASA http ccmc.gsfc.nasa.gov mo ... more details
Infobox Album See Wikipedia WikiProject Albums Name ATMOSPHERE Electronic Suite Type Album Artist Eloy Fritsch Cover Atmosphere cover.gif Released 2003 Genre Electronic music , New Age Length Label Musea Dreaming, Rock Symphony Producer Eloy Fritsch Reviews Allmusic Rating 4.5 5 Allmusic class album id r639860 pure url yes link Last album Mythology Eloy Fritsch album Mythology br 2001 This album Atmosphere br 2003 Next album Landscapes Eloy Fritsch album Landscapes br 2005 Atmosphere Electronic Suite is an album by Eloy Fritsch , a keyboard player known for his work in the progressive rock group Apocalypse band Apocalypse . As a solo artist he creates cosmic electronic music. The closest comparison would be probably Vangelis , if considering his early work, which included many analogue instruments. Nevertheless, Fritsch has found his own style within melodic Electronic music framework. The opus reveals once again Fritsch s ecological convictions he presently defends the virtues of the gas envelope that allow everyone to live on Earth the Atmosphere , a theme which is carried over to the album art featuring a cloud formation juxtaposed with outer space. The music is sweeping, majestic, and at times orchestral. It moves from clear melodic themes that are somewhat earthly to the more experimental out there stuff in the middle of the album, only to return back to anthemic epicness by the end. Track listing Atmosphere Main Title Troposphere Clouds Nimbus cloud Nimbus , Cumulus cloud Cumulus , Stratus cloud Stratus , Cirrus cloud Cirrus Stratosphere Aurora Borealis Ionosphere Exosphere Atmosphere End Titles 2000s electronic album stub Category 2003 albums Category Eloy Fritsch albums ... more details
Infobox Album See Wikipedia WikiProject Albums Name Hydroponic Garden Type studio Artist Carbon Based Lifeforms Cover Released 2003 Recorded Genre Ambient music Ambient , Chill out music Chill out Length 1 16 27 Label Ultimae Records Producer Last album The Path Carbon Based Lifeforms album The Path br 1998 This album Hydroponic Garden br 2003 Next album World of Sleepers br 2006 Hydroponic Garden is the first studio album by Swedish ambient duo Carbon Based Lifeforms , released in 2003. Track listing All music by Johannes Hedberg and Daniel Ringstr m. tracklist lyrics credits no music credits no title1 Central Plains length1 8 08 title2 Tensor length2 5 43 title3 MOS 6581 length3 7 11 title4 Silent Running length4 7 05 title5 Neurotransmitter length5 7 28 title6 Hydroponic Garden length6 9 12 title7 Exosphere length7 5 05 title8 Comsat length8 7 08 title9 Epicentre length9 5 57 title10 Artificial Island length10 5 11 title11 Refraction 1.33 length11 8 19 External links http www.carbonbasedlifeforms.net Carbon Based Lifeforms official website. http www.last.fm music Carbon Based Lifeforms Hydroponic Garden Hydroponic Garden at Last.fm , where the entire album is available for streaming. 2000s electronic album stub Category 2003 albums Category Ambient albums ... more details
Image Earth crust cutaway english.svg thumb 350px right Earth cutaway from core to exosphere . Partially to scale The outer core of the Earth is a liquid layer about 2,266 kilometers thick composed of iron and nickel which lies above the Earth s solid inner core and below its mantle geology mantle . Its outer boundary lies convert 2890 km mi abbr on beneath the Earth s surface. The transition between the inner core and outer core is located approximately 5,150 km beneath the Earth s surface. The temperature of the outer core ranges from 4400 C in the outer regions to 6100 C near the inner core. Eddy current s in the nickel iron fluid of the outer core are believed to influence the Earth s magnetic field . The average magnetic field strength in the Earth s outer core was measured to be 25 Gauss, 50 times stronger than the magnetic field at the surface. ref http www.science20.com news articles first measurement magnetic field inside earths core ref ref http www.nature.com nature journal v468 n7326 full nature09643.html ref The outer core is not under enough pressure to be solid, so it is liquid even though it has a composition similar to that of the inner core. Sulfur and oxygen could also be present in the outer core. Without the outer core, life on Earth would be very different. Convection of liquid metals in the outer core creates the Earth s magnetic field. ref http woodrowshew.com pepi05.pdf Woodrow L. Shew, Daniel P. Lathrop, Liquid sodium model of geophysical core convection, Physics of the Earth and Planetary Interiors 153 2005 136 149 ref ref Kent C. Condie, Plate Tectonics, Butterworth Heinemann 4th ed., 1997, p. 140 ISBN 978 0750633864 ref This magnetic field extends outward from the Earth for several thousand kilometers, and creates a protective bubble around the Earth that deflects the Sun s solar wind . Without this field, the solar wind would directly strike the Earth s atmosphere . This could potentially have slowly removed the Earth s atmosphere, rendering ... more details
File 1e7m comparison Uranus Neptune Sirius B Earth Venus.png thumb Planets from Venus up to Uranus have diameters from ten to one hundred million metres. Top row Uranus left , Neptune right middle row Earth left , Sirius Sirius B Sirius B center , and Venus right , to scale. Refimprove date April 2007 To help compare different orders of magnitude , this page lists length s starting at 10 sup 7 sup metre s 10 megametre s or 10,000 kilometre s . 1 E 6 m Distances shorter than 10 sup 7 sup metres Conversions 10 megametres 10 Mm is 6,215 mile s. side of a Square geometry square of area 1 E 14 m 100,000,000 square kilometre s km sup 2 sup radius of a circle of area 314,159,265 km sup 2 sup Human defined scales and structures 11.085 Mm &mdash Length of the Kiev Vladivostok railway, a longer variant of the Trans Siberian railway ref http www.poezda.net en train timetable?tr code 907081 3A D4 CIS railway timetable , route No. 350, Kiev Vladivostok. http www.webcitation.org 5lkXgIZEu Archived 2009 12 03. ref 13.300 Mm &mdash Length of roads being rehabilitated and widened under the National Highway Development Project launched in 1998 in India 39.000 Mm &mdash Length of the SEA ME WE 3 optical submarine telecommunications cable, joining 39 points between Norden, Lower Saxony Norden , Germany and Okinawa , Japan 67.000 Mm &mdash Total length of National Highways India National Highways in India Nature 10 Mm Approximate altitude of the outer boundary of the exosphere 10.001 Mm Length of the meridian arc from the North Pole to the Equator the original definition of the metre was based on this length . 60.000 Mm Total length of the mid ocean ridge s Astronomical 12.000 Mm Diameter of Sirius Sirius B , a white dwarf ref cite news first Christine last McGourty title Hubble finds mass of white dwarf publisher BBC News date 2005 12 14 url http news.bbc.co.uk 2 hi science nature 4528586.stm accessdate 2007 10 13 ref 12.104 Mm Diameter of Venus 12.742 Mm Diameter of Earth 12.900 ... more details
align right Infobox Spacecraft Name Ranger 2 Image File Ranger 2.jpg 300px Organization NASA Major Contractors Jet Propulsion Laboratory Mission Type Lunar Science Satellite Of Earth Launch November 18, 1961 at 08 09 00 Coordinated Universal Time UTC Launch Vehicle Atlas Agena B Decay November 20, 1961 Mission Duration 2 days Mass 304 kg NSSDC ID 1961 032A Webpage http nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov database MasterCatalog?sc 1961 032A NASA NSSDC Master Catalog Semimajor Axis 6,574.2 km Eccentricity .? Inclination 33.3 Orbital Period 89 minutes Apoapsis 242 km Periapsis 150 km Orbits 32 border 1 cellpadding 2 cellspacing 0 align right width 310 align center colspan 2 cellspacing 0 cellpadding 2 bgcolor 006699 Instruments Lyman Alpha Telescope to scan earth to study hydrogen constituent of exosphere Magnetometer to measure magnetic field in interplanetary space Ranger 2 was a flight test of the Ranger spacecraft system of the NASA Ranger program designed for future lunar and interplanetary mission s. Ranger 2 was designed to test various systems for future exploration and to conduct scientific observations of cosmic ray s, magnetic field s, radiation , dust particles, and a possible hydrogen hydrogen gas tail trailing the Earth. Spacecraft design Ranger 2 was of the Ranger Block 1 design and was almost identical to Ranger 1 . The spacecraft consisted of a hexagonal base 1.5 m across upon which was mounted a cone shaped 4 m high tower of aluminum struts and braces. Two Photovoltaic module solar panel wings measuring 5.2 m from tip to tip extended from the base. A high gain directional dish antenna was attached to the bottom of the base. Spacecraft experiments and other equipment were mounted on the base and tower. Instruments aboard the spacecraft included a Lyman alpha telescope , a rubidium vapor magnetometer , electrostatic analyzers, medium energy range particle detector s, two triple coincidence telescope s, a cosmic ray integrating ionization chamber , cosmic dust detectors ... more details
through Jeans Escape. The exosphere is the high altitude region where atmospheric density is sparse and Jeans Escape occurs. Jeans escape calculations assuming an exosphere temperature of 1,800 degrees ... a billion years. 1,800 degrees is higher than the actual observed exosphere temperature at the actual average exosphere temperature, depletion of O ions would not occur even over a trillion years. Furthermore ... more details
Seealso Index of earth science articles Earth science , the earth sciences , geoscience and planetary science are all embracing terms for the sciences related to the planet Earth planet Earth . Earth is arguably a special case in planetary science , being the only known life bearing planet. There are both reductionist and holism holistic approaches to the Earth science. The major historic discipline s use physics , geology , mathematics , chemistry and biology to build a quantitative understanding of the principal areas or Earth s spheres spheres of the Earth system. Earth s spheres Image Seawifs global biosphere.jpg thumb 300px A false color composite of global oceanic and terrestrial photoautotroph abundance from September 1997 to August 2000, showing Earth s biosphere. Provided by the SeaWiFS Project, NASA Goddard Space Flight Center and ORBIMAGE . The Earth s spheres are the many spheres into which the planet Earth is divided. The four most often recognized are the atmosphere , the biosphere , the hydrosphere and the geosphere . As a whole, the system is sometimes referred to as an ecosphere. Listed roughly form outermost to innermost the named spheres of the Earth are Magnetosphere Atmosphere , the gases that surround the Earth its air By altitude Exosphere Exobase Ionosphere Thermopause Thermosphere Mesopause Mesosphere Stratopause Stratosphere Ozone layer Tropopause Troposphere Planetary boundary layer By air turbulence Heterosphere Turbopause Homosphere Biosphere , all life on Earth Anthroposphere Noosphere rare Hydrosphere , all water found on, under, and over the surface of Earth Cryosphere sometimes Pedosphere Geosphere Lithosphere Crust geology Lithosphere Asthenosphere Mesosphere mantle Mesosphere Earth s mantle Earth s core Inner core Outer core Branches of earth science Geology Geology Economic geology Engineering geology Environmental geology Gemology Geochemistry Geochronology Geomagnetic s Geomicrobiology Geomorphology Geophysics Historical geology ... more details
Wikify date December 2010 Infobox musical artist Name Main Img Img capt Img size Landscape Background group or band Origin Genre Ambient music Ambient Music , Experimental music Experimental Music , Post Rock , Dark Ambient , Alternative Rock , Indie Rock , Experimental Ambient ref name genres cite web url Allmusic class artist id main p44814 pure url yes title Allmusic entry for Main publisher Allmusic accessdate 2010 12 02 ref Years active 1991&ndash 2006 Label Beggars Banquet label Beggars Banquet , Sub Rosa label Sub Rosa , K Raa K , Staalplaat Associated acts Loop band Loop , Robert Hampson , The Hair and Skin Trading Company URL Past members Robert Hampson br Scott Dawson Main were a United Kingdom British Ambient music ambient band formed in 1991 by guitarists Robert Hampson and Scott Dawson , the former members of Loop band Loop . They combined ambient sound with layers of electric guitars and dark, foreboding emotional overtones. In 2006 Hampson announced that Main had been effectively disbanded in favour of his solo work. Discography Singles, EPs Hydra 12 Single 1991 Calm 12 EP 1992 Dry Stone Feed 12 mini LP CD 1992 Firmament CD 1993 Core 7 Single 1994 Limited edition 300 copies, then released on Ligature cd Ligature Remixes 12 EP 1994 Firmament II CD 1994 Coderays 7 Single 1995 Limited edition 100 copies Hertz 1 Corona 12 mini cd 1995 Hertz 2 Terminus 12 mini cd 1995 Hertz 3 Maser 12 mini cd 1995 Hertz 4 Haloform 12 mini cd 1995 Hertz 5 Kaon 12 mini cd 1995 Hertz 6 Neper 12 mini cd 1995 Firmament III EP CD 1996 Deliquescence CD 1997 Live Firmament IV EP CD 1998 Transiency mini CD 2003 Albums Motion Pool 3LP CD 1994 Hydra Calm LP CD 1995 Re issue of Hydra and Calm , plus one inedit Ligature Remixes CD 1995 Re issue, contains 3 extra tracks the Core 7 single Hz 3LP 2CD 1996 Re issue of the whole Hertz Project Firmament III & IV 3 cd 1999 Re issue of the Firmament Ep III and IV plus Deliquecence Tau CD 2002 Exosphere CD 2003 Surcease 2006 External links ... more details
Main Earth science See also Outline of earth science Earth science also known as geoscience , the geosciences or the Earth Sciences , is an all embracing term for the science s related to the planet Earth planet Earth . ref http wordnet.princeton.edu perl webwn?s earth 20science Wordnet Search Earth science ref It is arguably a special case in planetary science , the Earth being the only known life bearing planet. There are both reductionist and holism holistic approaches to Earth science. There are four major discipline s in earth sciences, namely geography , geology , geophysics and geodesy . These major disciplines use physics , chemistry , biology , chronology and mathematics to build a quantitative understanding of the principal areas or Earth s spheres spheres of the Earth system. Articles related to earth science include CompactTOC8 short1 seealso no f i j k r u w x y z A Antarctic convergence Atmospheric chemistry Atmospheric physics Atmospheric sciences B Biosphere Biogeography C Cartography Chemical oceanography Climatology Crust geology Crust Cryosphere Crystallography mineralogy D Dynamo theory E Earth s core disambiguation Earth s core Earth s magnetic field Earth s mantle Economic geology Edaphology soil science Engineering geology Environmental geology Environmental science Exosphere Atmospheric sciences Erosion G Gaia hypothesis Gemology mineralogy Geochemistry Geochronology Geophysics Geodesy see Surveying Geodynamics Geophysics and Tectonics Geography Geoinformatics GIS Geology Geomagnetic s Geophysics Geomicrobiology Geomorphology Geophysics Geosphere Geostatistics Glaciology Geology and Hydrology Gravimetry Geophysics H Historical geology Human geography Hydrogeology Hydrology Hydrometeorology Hydrosphere I Intertropical Convergence Zone L Limnology Hydrology List of earth science topics alphabetical deliberate self link Lithosphere Geology M Magma Volcanology Magnetosphere Marine biology Oceanography Marine geology Oceanography Meridional flow M ... more details
Hydrodynamic escape refers to a thermal atmospheric escape mechanism that can lead to the escape of heavier atoms of a planet ary Celestial body atmosphere atmosphere through numerous collisions with lighter atoms. The classical thermal escape mechanism is when individual molecule s from the long tail high velocity tail of the Maxwell Boltzmann distribution reaches the escape velocity and overcome the gravity field. This is known as Jeans escape and depend on the temperature of the planet s exosphere and the strength of its gravity field. It can be shown that for cold giant gas planets such as Jupiter and Saturn there is no thermal driven atmospheric escape of significance while for smaller and warmer planets such as Earth only light atoms may escape in this manner heavier atoms stay . ref cite book title Giant planets of our solar system an introduction last Irwin first Patrick G. J. authorlink coauthors year 2006 publisher Birkh user location isbn 3540313176 page 56 pages url http books.google.com books?id D6HZKSKg6P0C accessdate 22 Dec 2009 table 3.1 ref Hydrodynamic escape occurs if there is a strong thermal driven atmospheric escape of light atoms which through drag effects collisions also drive off heavier atoms a bulk flow type of escape of the upper atmosphere, a so called blowoff . ref cite book title Giant planets of our solar system an introduction last Irwin first Patrick G. J. authorlink coauthors year 2006 publisher Birkh user location isbn 3540313176 page 58 pages url http books.google.com books?id D6HZKSKg6P0C accessdate 22 Dec 2009 ref The heaviest species of atoms that can be removed in this manner is called the cross over mass. It requires a large source of energy at a certain altitude to maintaining a significant hydrodynamic escape. Solar radiation is seldom enough for known present day atmospheres in the solar system. It is speculated that early atmospheres of Earth, Venus and Mars have experienced periods of significant hydrodynamic escape due ... more details
Infobox spacecraft Name Explorer 9 Image File Explorer 9.jpg 220px Explorer 9 before launch Caption Explorer 9 before launch Organisation NASA Mission Type Scientific Launch Date 16 February 1961 br 13 05 00 Carrier Rocket Scout X 1 Flight Number ST 4 Launch Site Wallops Flight Facility Wallops Wallops Flight Facility Launch Area 3 LA 3 Mission Duration Air density Decay 9 April 1964 COSPAR ID 1961 Delta 1 nolink on Orbit regime Medium Earth orbit Medium Earth Inclination 38.8 Apoapsis convert 2581 km Periapsis convert 635 km Orbital Period 118.4 minutes Explorer 9 , known as S 56A before launch, was an United States American satellite which was launched in 1961 to study the density and composition of the upper thermosphere and lower exosphere . ref cite web url http history.nasa.gov explorer.html title Explorer Spacecraft Series publisher NASA History Division first Woody last Smith accessdate 17 June 2010 ref It was a reflight of the failed S 56 satellite S 56 mission, and consisted of a convert 7 kg adj on , convert 3.7 m adj on balloon which was deployed into a medium Earth orbit . ref name EA cite web url http www.astronautix.com craft s56.htm title S 56 first Mark last Wade publisher Encyclopedia Astronautica accessdate 17 June 2010 ref The mission was conducted by NASA s Langley Research Center . File Scout X 1 with Explorer 9 Feb 16 1961.JPG 150px thumb left The launch of Explorer 9 Explorer 9 was launched from Wallops Flight Facility Launch Area 3 Launch Area 3 at the Wallops Flight Facility Wallops Flight Center , atop a Scout X 1 rocket with the serial number ST 4. It was the first spacecraft launched from Wallops Island to achieve orbit, with one previous attempt having failed. The launch occurred at 13 05 00 UTC on 16 February 1961, and resulted in Explorer 9 being deployed into a orbit with an apsis apogee of convert 2581 km , a apsis perigee of convert 635 km , 38.8 degrees of inclination and a period of 118.4 minutes. ref name SATCAT cite web url htt ... more details
Unreferenced date February 2011 Iron Man The Armored Avenger is a toy line manufactured by Hasbro, comprised mainly of 3 3 4 scale action figures but will also feature a line of 6 figures. This is a continuation of the Iron Man 2 toy line Iron Man 2 toy line under a different name, due to the company no longer marketing the film. Like the previous line, it will include a mix of movie based, comic based, and concept figures. The line falls under Hasbro s Avengers Assemble marketing banner, which will also include the Thor The Mighty Avenger toy line Thor The Mighty Avenger and Captain America The First Avenger toy line Captain America The First Avenger toy lines, both of which are based on their upcoming films. Action Figures 3.75 Single Carded Based on the numbering in the first wave of figures, it looks as if there will be at least 46 figures in this series. Unlike the Iron Man 2 line, these will not be coming with stands or armor cards. Wave 1 February 2011 This wave has not been released yet. class wikitable width 70 width 8 width 8 Series width 24 Figure width 30 Description width 30 Accessories 01 Concept Shield Breaker Armor Iron Man snap out shield smash 02 Concept Artillery Armor War Machine launching missiles 03 Concept Inferno Armor Iron Man 2 launching missiles 04 Concept Exosphere Armor Iron Man 2 launching missiles 05 Concept Subterranean Armor Iron Man blade attack 41 Movie Marvel s Power Charge Armor War Machine light up, 1 battery included 42 Movie Mark V Iron Man thicker grey areas when compared to versions released in the Iron Man 2 line includes transport case 43 Movie Reactor Shift Iron Man quick change from Mark IV to Mark VI snap on chest plates 44 Concept Hammer Drone prototype armor snap in whips and saws 45 Concept Sonic Storm Armor Iron Man redeco of Iron Man Hypervelocity Armor from Iron Man 2 line launching missile 46 Concept Storm Surge Armor Iron Man redeco of Iron Man Deep Dive Armor from Iron Man 2 line launching torpedo Action Figure ... more details
nowrap 0.1 and 10 sup 10 sup bar and the thermosphere exosphere extending from 4000 km ..., the scale height can assume values from 20 to 400 km. group note is called the exosphere ... exosphere, the exobase, is located at a height of about 6,500 km, or 1 4 of the planetary radius, above the surface. ref name Herbert1996 877 The exosphere is unusually extended, reaching ... of the thermosphere explain in part why Uranus s exosphere is so vast. tag ref The corona contains ... Herbert1996 879 Herbert1996 Herbert , 1996, pp.10879 80 ref The effects of this bloated exosphere ... more details
Image EarthAtmosphereBig.jpg thumb 80px right Earth atmosphere diagram showing the exosphere and other layers. The layers are to scale. From Earth s surface to the top of the stratosphere convert 50 km mi abbr on disp or is just under 1 of Earth s radius. This article is about the atmospheric mesosphere, for the Earth s mantle see Mesosphere mantle . The mesosphere IPA en m so sf r pron from the Greek language Greek words mesos middle and sphaira ball is the layer of the Earth s atmosphere that is directly above the stratosphere and directly below the thermosphere . In the mesosphere temperature decreases with increasing height. The upper boundary of the mesosphere is the mesopause, which can be the coldest naturally occurring place on Earth with temperatures below 130 K. The exact upper and lower boundaries of the mesosphere vary with latitude and with season, but the lower boundary of the mesosphere is usually located at heights of about 50 km above the Earth s surface and the mesopause is usually at heights near 100 km, except at middle and high latitudes in summer where it descends to heights of about 85 km. The stratosphere, mesosphere and lowest part of the thermosphere are collectively referred to as the middle atmosphere , which spans heights from approximately 10 to 100 km. The mesopause , at an altitude of convert 80 90 km mi abbr on , separates the mesosphere from the thermosphere &mdash the second outermost layer of the Earth s atmosphere. This is also around the same altitude as the turbopause , below which different chemical species are well mixed due to turbulent eddies. Above this level the atmosphere becomes non uniform the scale height s of different chemical species differ by their molecular mass es. Temperature Within the mesosphere, temperature decreases with increasing altitude . This is due to decreasing solar heating and increasing cooling by CO sub 2 sub radiative emission. The top of the mesosphere, called the mesopause ... more details
wiktionarypar sphere A sphere is an object shaped like a ball and can also be used to refer to a sphere like region or List of algebraic structures shell . Sphere may also refer to TOCRight In mathematics Ball mathematics , the volume inside a sphere n sphere n sphere , the set of points a fixed distance from a central point in n 1 dimensional space In astronomy Celestial sphere , the astronomical description of the sky Armillary sphere , a physical model of the celestial sphere Celestial spheres or planetary spheres, refer to a geocentric model of the universe and the associated postulate of a Musica Universalis Music of the Spheres Hill sphere , the spherical region around an astronomical body where the primary gravitational influence on an orbiting object is that body Sphere of influence astrodynamics , similar to the Hill sphere, but smaller, only about 60 of the radius Sphere of influence astronomy , a region around a supermassive black hole In Earth science planetary science Atmosphere Earth s atmosphere Celestial body atmosphere s Troposphere Stratosphere Mesosphere Thermosphere Exosphere Magnetosphere Biosphere Anthroposphere Hydrosphere Cryosphere sometimes included in the hydrosphere Geosphere Lithosphere Pedosphere Soil Crust geology Mantle geology Asthenosphere Mesosphere mantle Planetary core Inner core Outer core In stellar physics The layers of a star, in particular of the Sun Solar core Radiation zone Convection zone Photosphere Chromosphere Corona In geology A type of spherical stone Stone balls Artificial stone spheres Petrosphere s Lapidary spheres Stone Round shot cannonballs Spherical stone shot for Trebuchet s Stone spheres of Costa Rica Carved Stone Balls of Scotland Natural stone spheres Spherulites Megaspherulites Concretions cannonball Spheroidal weathering that creates spherical corestones Figurative metaphorical Noosphere , the sphere of human thought and or creativity Wikt Sphere of knowledge Sphere of knowledge , a unified body or colle ... more details
Image Earth crust cutaway english.svg thumb 350px right Earth cutaway from core to exosphere. Partially to scale Travel to the Earth s center , though not considered possible with today s technology, is a popular List of science fiction themes theme of science fiction . Some subterranean fiction involves travel to the Earth s center, either finding a Hollow Earth or the Inner core Earth s molten core . Though no scientists have seriously proposed travel to the Earth s center, planetary science planetary scientist David J. Stevenson suggested sending a Space probe probe to the core as a thought experiment . ref Cite journal first David last Stevenson title A Modest Proposal Mission to Earth s Core journal self published via Caltech website volume pages doi url http web.gps.caltech.edu faculty stevenson coremission mission to core annot .pdf date ref ref cite news first Ivan last Noble coauthors title Plumbing the Earth s depths date 14 May 2003 publisher BBC News url http news.bbc.co.uk 1 hi sci tech 3021255.stm work pages accessdate 2008 02 23 language ref So far, the deepest humans have drilled is just over 12 kilometers 7.62 miles , in the Kola Superdeep Borehole , ref cite book last Eagleson first Mary authorlink coauthors title Concise Encyclopedia Chemistry publisher Walter de Gruyter date 1994 location url doi id isbn 3110114518 page 799 ref which is just 0.1875 of the Earth s radius. Hollow Earth Main Hollow Earth A Hollow Earth belief posits that the planet Earth has a hollow interior and probably a habitable inner surface. At one time, adventure literature made this idea popular. The scientific community dismisses it as pseudoscience but it remains a popular feature of many fantasy and science fiction stories, and is an explanation used for conspiracy theories . In science fiction Most famous was Jules Verne s 1864 science fiction novel A Journey to the Center of the Earth . The 2003 film The Core concerns a team that has to drill to the center of the Earth ... more details
Image Newton Cannon.svg thumb right An orbiting cannon ball showing various Sub orbital spaceflight sub orbital and Planetary orbit orbital possibilities. Image Orbits around earth scale diagram.svg thumb Various earth orbits to scale light blue represents low earth orbit. File Sunrise To Sunset Aboard The ISS.OGG thumb Roughly half an orbit of the ISS . A low Earth orbit LEO is generally defined as an orbit within the Locus mathematics locus extending from the Earth s surface up to an altitude of 2,000 km. Given the rapid orbital decay of objects below approximately 200 km, the commonly accepted definition for LEO is between 160 2,000 km 100 1,240 miles above the Earth Earth s surface. ref cite web url http www.iadc online.org docs pub IADC 101502.Mit.Guidelines.pdf format PDF title IADC Space Debris Mitigation Guidelines publisher Inter Agency Space Debris Coordination Committee date 15 October 2002 ref ref cite web url http www.orbitaldebris.jsc.nasa.gov library NSS1740 14 nss1740 14 1995.pdf format PDF title NASA Safety Standard 1740.14, Guidelines and Assessment Procedures for Limiting Orbital Debris publisher Office of Safety and Mission Assurance date 1 August 1995 ref With the exception of the lunar flights of the Apollo program , all human spaceflight s have either been orbital in LEO or sub orbital. The altitude record for a human spaceflight in LEO was Gemini 11 with an Apsis apogee of 1,374.1 km. Orbital characteristics Objects in LEO encounter atmospheric drag in the form of gases in the thermosphere approximately 80 500 km up or exosphere approximately 500 km and up , depending on orbit height. LEO is an orbit around Earth between the atmosphere and below the inner Van Allen radiation belt . The altitude is usually not less than 300 km because that would be impractical due to the larger atmospheric drag. Equatorial low Earth orbits ELEO are a subset of LEO. These orbits, with low inclination to the Equator, allow rapi ... more details
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